Battery Life – Expected Operating Time of Battery – Electrical

Definition

Battery life—also called expected operating time or run time—is the period a battery can continuously provide power to a device before its energy is depleted and it must be recharged (if rechargeable) or replaced (if primary/disposable). Battery life is determined by the battery’s total capacity (in ampere-hours [Ah] or watt-hours [Wh]) and the device’s power consumption (in watts [W] or amperes [A]).

This metric is critical in electrical engineering and aviation, directly affecting device usability, maintenance intervals, safety, and regulatory compliance. For instance, aviation authorities like ICAO specify minimum battery life for key systems such as emergency locator transmitters (ELTs) and avionics backup power to ensure operational safety.

Battery life differs from battery lifetime, which is the total usable age or number of cycles a battery can deliver before replacement is needed. While battery life addresses how long a battery lasts per use, battery lifetime concerns overall durability and life expectancy under repeated use.

Many factors influence battery life, including environmental conditions (temperature, humidity), discharge rate, self-discharge, internal resistance, and the device’s voltage requirements. In aviation, these factors are strictly monitored to comply with international standards and ensure mission-critical reliability.

How It Is Used

Battery life is central to the design, certification, operation, and maintenance of battery-powered devices, especially in regulated sectors such as aviation.

• Engineers calculate battery life to choose the right battery technology and size for devices—ensuring key systems (e.g., flight data recorders, ELTs, communications) remain operational for required durations, even under worst-case scenarios.
• Designers use battery life predictions in early development to select chemistries and capacities that match energy needs and maintenance schedules.
• Operators and maintenance teams rely on battery life data to plan inspections, replacements, and system readiness, avoiding unplanned outages or non-compliance with regulations.
• Regulators (e.g., ICAO, FAA, EASA) set minimum battery life requirements and test protocols for critical aviation equipment. Compliance is ensured by testing, record-keeping, and periodic inspections.
• System optimization: Battery life data informs power management strategies like sleep modes, duty cycling, and adaptive operation to extend runtime and meet regulatory standards.

Key Concepts and Terms

Additional Knowledge:

• Battery capacity is specified under standard conditions, but real-world performance varies with temperature, load, and aging.
• Self-discharge is particularly important for aviation safety devices that may be unused for long periods.
• Discharge rate (C-rate) affects available capacity—especially in lead-acid and nickel-based chemistries.
• SOC and SOH are monitored by Battery Management Systems (BMS), which are increasingly required in aviation.

Fundamental Formula for Battery Run Time

For most applications:

• If device power (W) is known:
  Run Time (h) = Battery Capacity (Wh) ÷ Device Power (W)

• If device current (A) is known:
  Run Time (h) = Battery Capacity (Ah) ÷ Device Current (A)

• To convert Ah to Wh:
  Battery Capacity (Wh) = Battery Voltage (V) × Battery Capacity (Ah)

Example Calculation

A 12V, 10Ah battery powers a 24W device:

• Battery capacity = 12V × 10Ah = 120Wh
• Run time = 120Wh ÷ 24W = 5 hours

A 28V, 10Ah battery powers a 15W flight data recorder:

• Battery capacity = 28V × 10Ah = 280Wh
• Run time = 280Wh ÷ 15W ≈ 18.7 hours

Practical Use Cases

• Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT):
  ICAO requires ELTs to transmit for 24+ hours. A 7.5Ah, 9V battery drawing 300mA:
  Run time = 7.5Ah ÷ 0.3A = 25 hours

• Control Tower UPS:
  12V, 100Ah battery bank for a 400W load:
  12V × 100Ah = 1200Wh; 1200Wh ÷ 400W = 3 hours

• IoT Sensor Node:
  3.6V, 19Ah battery powering a 150µA sensor:
  19,000mAh ÷ 0.15mA = ~126,667 hours (~14.5 years)

Factors Influencing Battery Operating Time

Battery Capacity: Actual deliverable energy varies by chemistry, discharge rate, aging, and temperature.

Device Power Consumption: Includes all operational modes; accurate estimation needs real load profile.

Battery Type and Chemistry:

• Lithium-ion: High density, moderate self-discharge, sensitive to extremes.
• Nickel-Cadmium: Robust, moderate density, memory effect.
• Lead-acid: Reliable, heavier, cycle-limited.
• Primary lithium: Low self-discharge, ideal for long-term or emergency use.

Temperature: Low temp reduces capacity, high temp accelerates aging/self-discharge.

Rate of Discharge: High rates reduce effective capacity (notably in lead-acid/nickel chemistries).

Battery Age and Health: Capacity and efficiency degrade over time and use.

Self-Discharge: Gradual loss of charge during storage; varies by chemistry.

Device Voltage Requirements: Device may shutdown before battery is fully depleted due to voltage drop.

Environmental and Storage Conditions: Humidity, vibration, and improper storage reduce battery life.

Calculating Battery Run Time: Step-by-Step Guide

1. Gather Parameters:
   • Battery voltage (V), capacity (Ah/Wh), device power/current, cut-off voltage, load profile, environmental factors.
2. Convert Units:
   • mAh to Ah (÷1000); Power (W) = Voltage × Current.
3. Apply Formula:
   • Run Time (h) = Wh ÷ W, or Ah ÷ A.
4. Adjust for Efficiency and Discharge Limits:
   • Multiply by inverter/system efficiency (e.g., 0.9); apply discharge limits (e.g., 50% for lead-acid).
5. Consider Temperature and Aging:
   • Derate for low/high temperature and battery aging (20–30% margin).

Example Table

Advanced Considerations

• Efficiency Losses: Internal resistance and power conversion losses must be included (typical aviation-grade systems: 85–95%).
• Load Variability: Many devices alternate between active and low-power modes; use average current over the full duty cycle.
• Self-Discharge/Shelf Life: Critical for infrequently used devices; select chemistries with low self-discharge for these applications.
• Passivation: Some lithium primary cells develop a resistive layer during storage, causing voltage delay on initial load.
• Battery Management Systems (BMS): Required for most lithium batteries in aviation; protect against over/under voltage, overcurrent, and thermal events.

Best Practices and Optimization Tips

• Choose batteries with high capacity, low self-discharge, and proven safety, especially for aviation.
• Regularly inspect and test batteries per regulatory guidelines.
• Apply safety margins for aging, temperature, and system inefficiencies.
• Use BMS for active monitoring and protection in critical applications.

Summary

Battery life is a foundational metric for the reliability and safety of battery-powered electrical and electronic systems—especially in aviation, where regulatory compliance, operational readiness, and safety are paramount. Accurate estimation and management of battery life require understanding capacity, device consumption, chemistry, and real-world conditions. By following best practices and using advanced management systems, engineers and operators can optimize battery performance and ensure uninterrupted operation of mission-critical equipment.