Mean Sea Level (MSL) in Surveying: Comprehensive Reference

Introduction

Mean Sea Level (MSL) is a crucial concept underpinning virtually all aspects of surveying, mapping, geodesy, and engineering. It provides a common, stable vertical reference for the measurement of elevations, the design and construction of infrastructure, and the monitoring of environmental change. This guide offers an in-depth exploration of MSL—its definition, physical basis, measurement methods, and significance across diverse technical fields.

Defining Mean Sea Level (MSL)

Mean Sea Level (MSL) is the long-term average height of the ocean’s surface at a particular location, measured relative to a stable reference point and averaged over a time period sufficient to eliminate periodic and irregular influences such as tides, seasonal variations, and atmospheric effects. It represents the “zero” elevation on which surveyors, engineers, and scientists base all vertical measurements.

• Statistical, not physical: MSL is a statistical average, not a fixed, observable surface.
• Reference for vertical datums: National and global vertical datums are based on MSL, allowing consistent elevation measurement worldwide.
• Measured by tide gauges and satellites: Traditional tide gauges and modern satellite altimetry are the primary tools for determining MSL.

Geodetic and Physical Foundations

The Geoid

The geoid is a theoretical, equipotential surface representing the global mean sea level under gravity and rotation, extending beneath the continents. It is the best approximation of “level” on Earth—a surface along which gravity is everywhere perpendicular and water at rest would not flow. The geoid is irregular, reflecting variations in the planet’s mass distribution, and departs from a simple ellipsoid by up to ±100 meters.

Reference Ellipsoid

A reference ellipsoid is a smooth, mathematically defined approximation of Earth’s shape (an oblate spheroid). GPS and GNSS reference all positions to an ellipsoid, but true elevations (orthometric heights) must reference the geoid (MSL), requiring precise geoid models for conversion.

Vertical Datum

A vertical datum is a standardized reference surface for elevations, most often tied to MSL as determined at a specific location and epoch. National datums (e.g., NAVD88 in the USA, Ordnance Datum Newlyn in the UK) are propagated using high-precision leveling from tide gauge observations.

Variability and Dynamics of MSL

MSL is not globally uniform:

• Regional differences: Influenced by ocean currents, temperature, salinity, atmospheric pressure, and local gravity anomalies.
• Temporal changes: MSL at any location changes over time due to tides, seasonal cycles, climate processes, tectonic movement, and sea level rise.
• Relative vs. absolute MSL: Relative MSL refers to sea level relative to a coastal benchmark, while absolute MSL is referenced to the global geoid.

Example: The Pacific and Atlantic entrances to the Panama Canal have MSLs differing by about 20 cm due to oceanographic and geodetic factors.

Methods of Measuring MSL

Tide Gauges

Tide gauges have been the traditional method for measuring local sea level.

• Float-operated gauges: Use a float in a stilling well to dampen wave action; the float’s movement is recorded mechanically or electronically.
• Modern sensors: Use pressure, radar, or acoustic sensing for automatic, high-frequency measurements.
• Averaging period: Data are averaged over at least 19 years (the Metonic cycle) to remove tidal and short-term meteorological effects.

Limitations

• Local land movement: Subsidence or uplift can affect tide gauge readings.
• Coastal location: Only measures sea level at specific points.

Satellite Altimetry

Satellites equipped with radar altimeters (e.g., TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason series, Sentinel-6) measure the distance from the satellite to the sea surface, providing global sea level data with centimeter accuracy.

• Global coverage: Satellite altimetry is indispensable for monitoring absolute sea level change and global ocean dynamics.
• Coastal resolution: Less accurate near coastlines due to signal interference.

Spirit Leveling

A ground-based optical method using a precise level (such as a dumpy or automatic level) and leveling staff to transfer elevation from benchmarks (often referenced to MSL).

• High precision: Millimeter-level accuracy over short distances.
• Labor intensive: Restricted to accessible, surveyed terrain.

Barometric and Trigonometric Levelling

• Barometric: Estimates elevation from air pressure differences; rapid but only accurate to decimeter or meter level.
• Trigonometric: Uses measured angles and distances; suitable for rough terrain, but less precise due to atmospheric and geometric corrections.

GNSS/GPS Heighting

GNSS/GPS provides 3D positions relative to an ellipsoid. Geoid models are used to convert GNSS heights to MSL-based elevations.

• Advantage: Rapid, global positioning.
• Limitation: Accuracy limited by geoid model precision (centimeter to decimeter level).

National Vertical Datums

Countries establish vertical datums by averaging long-term tide gauge records at stable locations, then propagate elevations nationwide by high-precision leveling.

• Datum differences: Variations in datum epochs, locations, and geoid models require careful conversion for international projects.

Surveying Instruments Used in MSL Determination

Dumpy Level

A robust optical instrument for precise spirit leveling.

• Components: Telescope, crosshairs, bubble tubes, focusing screws, mounted on a tripod.
• Accuracy: Sub-millimeter over short distances.

Levelling Staff

A graduated rod (self-reading or with a vernier target), used with a level to measure height differences.

• Modern digital staffs: Marked with barcodes for automated reading by digital levels.

Digital Levels

Combine optics and electronics, automatically reading staff graduations and storing data for efficient, error-minimized fieldwork.

Applications of MSL

Surveying and Mapping

MSL provides the vertical reference for all elevation surveys, enabling consistent mapping of topography, property boundaries, and infrastructure.

Engineering and Construction

Critical for the design and construction of roads, bridges, flood defenses, dams, and urban infrastructure. Elevations above MSL determine vulnerability to flooding and inform drainage design.

Aviation

All aircraft altitudes are referenced to MSL, ensuring universal standards for flight safety and airspace management.

Geodesy and Earth Sciences

Provides the foundation for monitoring crustal deformation, tectonic movement, and sea level change.

Climate Science

Long-term MSL records are essential for detecting and quantifying global sea level rise due to climate change.

Case Study: Lake Berryessa, California

Water levels are monitored with a float-tape system referenced to a local MSL-based datum, used for flood control, water management, and infrastructure safety.

MSL Measurement Method Comparison

Key Terms

Further Reading

• NOAA – What is Mean Sea Level?
• International Association of Geodesy: The Geoid
• Satellite Altimetry Missions Overview

Summary

Mean Sea Level (MSL) is the foundational vertical datum for surveying, engineering, navigation, and science. It is determined by averaging long-term sea surface height observations from tide gauges or satellites, providing a stable, universal reference for elevations and heights. Accurate determination and maintenance of MSL are essential for infrastructure, environmental monitoring, and global collaboration in science and engineering.

If you need expert advice on applying MSL in your projects, or want to learn more about precision surveying methods, contact our team or schedule a demo .

Prepared as a detailed glossary entry for professionals in surveying, geodesy, engineering, and science fields.