Haze
Haze is a meteorological phenomenon caused by fine, dry particles suspended in the air, reducing visibility and giving the atmosphere a milky, faded appearance....
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Aviation Weather
Air Quality
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Fog
Fog is a dense suspension of water droplets or ice crystals near the ground that reduces visibility below 1 km, posing major hazards to aviation and transportation. Its types—such as radiation, advection, and freezing fog—are defined by international standards and require specialized operational responses.
Meteorology
Aviation
Visibility
Weather phenomena
Fog: Visibility-Reducing Atmospheric Phenomenon
Fog is a surface-based cloud consisting of minute water droplets or ice crystals suspended near the Earth’s surface, leading to a marked reduction in horizontal visibility—by international standard, to less than 1 kilometer. Fog is strictly defined in meteorology and aviation to distinguish it from similar phenomena such as mist or haze (which have less severe impacts or different causes). The presence of fog is a critical operational hazard, especially in aviation, ground transportation, and maritime navigation.
Core Characteristics and Physical Formation
Fog forms when near-surface air becomes saturated, usually by cooling to its dew point or by the addition of moisture. Water vapor condenses onto microscopic aerosols (condensation nuclei), creating droplets typically between 1 and 10 micrometers in diameter. These droplets scatter light, causing the observed reduction in visibility.
Key factors in fog formation:
- High relative humidity (approaching 100%)
- Cooling of air to the dew point (commonly via radiational cooling, advection, or mixing)
- Presence of condensation nuclei (aerosols, dust, sea salt)
- Weak wind (less than 5 m/s), stable stratification, and conducive topography (valleys, lowlands)
Fog’s persistence and dissipation are influenced by solar heating, wind mixing, and changes in humidity.
Types of Fog: Classification and Mechanisms
| Fog Type | Formation Mechanism | Typical Locations | Visibility Impact | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Radiation Fog | Nighttime radiative cooling, calm winds | Valleys, lowlands | Severe | US Midwest, Oman highlands |
| Advection Fog | Warm, moist air over cold surface | Coasts, cold seas | Severe, widespread | San Francisco Bay, North Sea |
| Upslope Fog | Moist air forced upslope, cooling adiabatically | Windward mountain slopes | Moderate–Severe | Rockies, Oman’s Jebel Akhdar |
| Freezing Fog | Supercooled droplets at subzero temperatures | Cold regions, winter | Severe + icing | Alaska, Scandinavia |
| Evaporation Fog | Moisture added to cool air (steam, frontal) | Over water, post-rainfall | Localized | Sea smoke, autumn lakes |
| Hail Fog | Rapid cooling after hail accumulation | Patchy, post-storm | Localized, shallow | Midwest US |
| Ice Fog | Sublimation to ice crystals in extreme cold | Arctic/interior polar areas | Severe | Fairbanks, Alaska |
Note: Each fog type has unique operational and forecasting considerations, particularly for aviation and surface transport.
Fog in Aviation: Standards, Codes, and Operational Impact
ICAO/WMO Definition and Reporting
- Fog is defined as visibility <1 km due to water droplets/ice crystals near the ground.
- Reporting codes: FG (fog), FZFG (freezing fog) in METAR/TAF; BR (mist, 1–5 km); HZ (haze, dry particles).
- Example METAR:
EGLL 250650Z 09004KT 0400 FG VV/// 01/01 Q1023(FG = fog; visibility 400 m)
Impact on Flight Operations
- Runway operations: Reduced runway visual range (RVR) can restrict or halt takeoffs and landings.
- Instrument Landing Systems (ILS): Allow operations in low visibility (CAT I/II/III), but severe fog can exceed even the lowest limits.
- Ground movement: Taxiing becomes hazardous; requires enhanced lighting, signage, and procedural controls.
- Delays and diversions: Fog is a leading cause of weather delays and diversions at airports worldwide.
Mitigation Protocols
- Use of advanced ILS, ground radar, automated lighting.
- Strict adherence to low-visibility procedures (LVPs).
- Real-time METAR/TAF updates, special reports (SPECI, SIGMET).
- Crew and aircraft certification for low-visibility operations.
Measurement and Reporting
- Visibility sensors (transmissometers, scatter meters) and human observers report visibility and fog presence.
- RVR (Runway Visual Range) is the key metric for aviation decision-making, often lower than general visibility.
- Observational frequency: At least every 30 minutes at aerodromes, more frequent as needed.
Visibility thresholds:
- Fog (FG): <1 km
- Dense fog: <200 m
- Mist (BR): 1–5 km
Broader Implications: Safety, Climatology, Operations
Safety and Transportation
- Aviation: Fog is a top weather hazard, affecting all phases of flight and ground operations.
- Road/rail: Major cause of multi-vehicle accidents; triggers variable speed limits, warnings, and closures.
- Maritime: Impairs visual navigation—reliance shifts to radar and electronic aids.
Climatological and Regional Factors
- Oman: Frequent advection and upslope fog in coastal/highland regions, notably during monsoon.
- US, Europe: Radiation fog prevalent in valleys and lowlands, especially in autumn/winter.
- Polar regions: Ice fog and freezing fog dominate, particularly in Alaska and Scandinavia.
Technology and Forecasting
- Remote sensing: Satellites, LIDAR, ceilometers for fog detection.
- Forecasting: Machine learning and data fusion to predict fog onset, duration, and dissipation.
Summary Table: ICAO Fog Codes
| Code | Phenomenon | Definition/Remarks |
|---|---|---|
| FG | Fog | Visibility < 1 km due to water droplets |
| FZFG | Freezing fog | Fog with supercooled droplets, freezing on contact |
| BR | Mist | 1–5 km visibility, less dense than fog |
| HZ | Haze | Dry particles, not condensation-based |
Use Cases and Applications
- Airports: Advanced landing and ground systems, real-time fog monitoring, operational protocols.
- Roadways/Railways: Automated fog warning and detection, adaptive speed limits, public alerts.
- Maritime: Port closures, pilotage under restricted visibility, radar navigation.
- Industry: Fog clearance protocols in mining/construction, safety lighting and sensors.
- Urban planning: Infrastructure design and emergency planning for fog-prone zones.
Scientific Standards and International Context
- ICAO/WMO harmonized standards: Precise definitions, visibility thresholds, and reporting protocols are globally enforced for safety.
- Distinctions: Fog vs. mist (BR), haze (HZ), drizzle (DZ)—each with specific meteorological and operational meanings.
Conclusion
Fog is a complex meteorological phenomenon with significant safety and operational implications. Its strict definition, classification, and international reporting standards are vital for mitigating risks in aviation, transportation, and infrastructure. Continuous advances in detection, forecasting, and operational response ensure that fog, while challenging, can be managed to minimize hazards and maintain safety in critical sectors.
Frequently Asked Questions
- How is fog defined in meteorology and aviation?
According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), fog is defined as a suspension of water droplets or ice crystals in air near the surface, reducing horizontal visibility to less than 1 kilometer. This strict definition distinguishes fog from mist (1–5 km visibility) and haze (visibility reduction from dry particles).
- What are the main types of fog and how do they form?
The main types of fog include radiation fog (from nocturnal cooling), advection fog (from warm, moist air over a cold surface), upslope fog (air rising over terrain), freezing fog (supercooled droplets at subzero temperatures), evaporation/mixing fog (moisture added to cooler air), hail fog (rapid cooling after hail), and ice fog (ice crystals in extremely cold air). Each type is characterized by distinct meteorological mechanisms.
- Why is fog a major concern in aviation?
Fog is one of the leading causes of weather-related delays, diversions, and cancellations in aviation. It reduces runway and taxiway visibility, requiring the use of advanced landing systems, low-visibility procedures, and strict adherence to ICAO standards. Accurate measurement and reporting of fog (using codes such as FG and FZFG in METAR/TAF) are vital for safe airport and flight operations.
- How is fog measured and reported at airports?
Fog is measured using visibility sensors such as transmissometers and forward scatter meters. At airports, visibility (in meters or statute miles) and runway visual range (RVR) are reported in METARs and TAFs using standardized codes: FG for fog, FZFG for freezing fog, with the threshold for fog set at visibility less than 1 km. Observations are made at least every 30 minutes or more frequently during changing conditions.
- What operational protocols mitigate fog hazards?
Operational protocols include the use of instrument landing systems (ILS) with varying categories (CAT I, II, III), enhanced runway and taxiway lighting, ground radar, and strict air traffic control procedures. Special weather reports (SPECI, SIGMET) are issued when fog is present or forecast to ensure flight crews and ground staff take appropriate safety measures.
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