Landing – Aircraft Arrival and Touchdown on Runway

Landing is one of the most critical and technique-sensitive phases in aviation, involving a series of precisely defined steps and visual cues dictated by global regulatory authorities like the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) and ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization). This glossary entry explains every aspect of aircraft landing, from approach to rollout, referencing authoritative standards and best practices.

Aircraft Arrival

Aircraft Arrival is the structured process by which an aircraft transitions from enroute flight into terminal airspace, setting up for approach and landing. At controlled airports, this often starts with a handoff from enroute to terminal approach controllers and sequencing via Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs). At non-towered airports, pilots self-announce their intentions and join the traffic pattern at prescribed points. Proper arrival procedures—detailed in ICAO Doc 4444 and the FAA AIM—are essential for safe, orderly sequencing and conflict prevention as multiple aircraft converge on the same runway.

Key tasks during arrival include configuring the aircraft for landing (managing speed, flaps, and landing gear), conducting checklists, and maintaining heightened situational awareness for traffic and weather. Errors in this phase—such as late configuration or misjudged sequencing—can create unstable approaches, a leading cause of landing incidents.

Aiming Point

The Aiming Point is a pair of white runway markings, typically 1,000 feet (300 meters) from the runway threshold on precision runways, providing a visual reference for pilots to maintain a stable glide path. According to ICAO Annex 14, the aiming point is not where the aircraft should touch down, but where the pilot should direct the approach path before initiating the flare. Maintaining the aiming point at a constant position in the windscreen ensures a stable approach, reducing the risks of landing short or long.

Confusing the aiming point with the touchdown point—especially by student pilots—can cause hazardous landings. The key is to use it as a reference for approach geometry and allow the flare to carry the aircraft to a safe touchdown within the touchdown zone.

Arrival Procedures (FAA, ICAO)

Arrival Procedures are published, standardized instructions that dictate how aircraft move from enroute flight into the airport environment and sequence for landing. Under IFR (Instrument Flight Rules), these include STARs with defined waypoints, altitude and speed restrictions, and radio procedures. Under VFR (Visual Flight Rules), arrivals follow a traffic pattern comprising upwind, crosswind, downwind, base, and final legs, with pilots making position reports on the CTAF at uncontrolled airports.

ICAO Doc 4444 and the FAA AIM specify separation minima, vectoring altitudes, and sequencing for arrivals. Adherence to these procedures is essential for safety, especially in complex terminal airspace or during periods of high traffic density.

Approach (Phase of Flight)

The Approach phase extends from the initial approach fix (IAF) or traffic pattern entry to just above the runway threshold. It may be conducted under visual or instrument conditions, using published procedures (e.g., ILS, RNAV, VOR approaches) or visual cues. The approach is divided into initial, intermediate, and final segments.

A stabilized approach—one where the aircraft is on the correct speed, glide path, and in landing configuration by at least 1,000 feet AGL (or as specified)—is critical for safety. Unstable approaches are a major contributor to landing accidents. Strict adherence to approach minima and missed approach criteria are industry best practices.

Base Leg

The Base Leg is the flight path perpendicular to the runway centerline in the traffic pattern, connecting the downwind leg to final approach. Pilots typically lower flaps, reduce speed, and begin descending on base to prepare for the turn to final. ICAO and FAA guidance recommend that the base leg be flown at pattern altitude (usually 1,000 feet AGL for light aircraft). Proper execution ensures a smooth, stable transition to final approach.

Final Approach

Final Approach is the final segment before landing, where the aircraft is aligned with the runway centerline and descending toward the aiming point. This phase requires the aircraft to be fully configured for landing, at target approach speed, and on a stable glide slope. Pilots rely on visual or electronic aids (such as ILS, VASI/PAPI) to maintain alignment and descent rate.

Precise control of speed, attitude, and alignment is essential. Errors here can result in hard, long, or off-center touchdowns.

Flare (Roundout)

The Flare is the maneuver in which the pilot gently raises the nose, transitioning from descent to level flight just above the runway. This reduces the descent rate and airspeed, allowing for a smooth touchdown. The flare should be initiated when the runway perspective rapidly expands, typically a few feet above the surface. Proper timing is critical—too early and the aircraft may float; too late and it may land hard.

Crosswind landings require coordinated use of aileron and rudder during the flare to maintain alignment and prevent drift.

Touchdown Point

The Touchdown Point is where the aircraft’s wheels first contact the runway, ideally within the designated touchdown zone (usually the first third of the runway). Accurate touchdown is crucial for safety, especially on short or contaminated runways. Standard operating procedures may require a go-around if touchdown occurs outside the touchdown zone.

Touchdown Zone (TDZ)

The Touchdown Zone (TDZ) is a marked portion of the runway—often the first 3,000 feet or one-third of its length—designated for landing. It is identified by pairs of white bars at 500-foot intervals. Touching down within the TDZ ensures adequate runway for deceleration and minimizes overrun risks. For precision approaches, touchdown in the TDZ is a certification and operational requirement.

Runway Threshold

The Runway Threshold is marked by wide, white stripes (“piano keys”) and indicates the beginning of the usable runway for landing. It is often displaced from the physical runway end for obstacle clearance. Landings should not occur before the threshold; displaced thresholds indicate the area before it is not available for touchdown but may be used for taxi or takeoff.

Runway Centerline

The Runway Centerline is a dashed white line running the length of the runway, providing alignment guidance. Accurate tracking of the centerline during approach, landing, and rollout is essential for safety, particularly in crosswind or low-visibility conditions.

Runway Markings (Visual Cues)

Runway Markings—including centerline, threshold, aiming point, touchdown zone, and edge markings—are standardized by ICAO and FAA for visibility and guidance. These markings, often augmented by lighting systems, are critical for orientation, especially in poor visibility.

Landing Roll

The Landing Roll begins at touchdown and continues until the aircraft slows to taxi speed or stops. Pilots use aerodynamic braking, wheel brakes, spoilers, and (for jets) thrust reversers to decelerate. Maintaining directional control is essential, especially on wet or icy runways. Standard procedures include exiting the runway at designated taxiways and maintaining vigilance for runway incursions.

Go-Around (Missed Approach, Rejected Landing, Balked Landing)

A Go-Around is an aborted landing procedure where the pilot applies power and climbs away from the runway. It may be triggered by an unstable approach, runway obstruction, or ATC instruction. IFR approaches have published missed approach procedures with headings and altitudes for safe climb-out. Timely execution of a go-around is a vital safety practice.

Touch-and-Go Landing

A Touch-and-Go Landing is a maneuver—primarily for training—where the aircraft lands and immediately takes off again without stopping. This allows pilots to efficiently practice approaches, flares, and takeoffs. Some airports restrict touch-and-go operations for noise or traffic management reasons.

Summary

Landing is a multi-stage, precision-driven operation that demands thorough understanding of both procedural standards and visual cues. From arrival and approach to flare, touchdown, and rollout, each step is governed by global regulations to maximize safety. Proper execution ensures efficient runway use, minimizes risk, and supports safe integration of diverse aircraft types into busy airport environments.

For more on airfield optimization, runway safety, or to discuss how to enhance your airport’s landing procedures, contact us or schedule a demo .